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Study designs in qualitative research

 ETHNOGRAPHY قوم نگاری

– Focus: the culture of a group of people و شناخت الگوهای رفتاری

– گروه خاصی از مردم كه دارای ارزشهای مشترك هستند مثلا معلمان یك موسسه

آموزشی، دانشجویان یك رشته

– Assumption: every human group evolves a culture that guides

members view of the world and the way they structure their

experiences.

– May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents.

– Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through

participant observation.

– Men's attitudes, beliefs and roles in pregnancy and childbirth: an

Ethnographic Study in Nepal

Study designs in qualitative research

Grounded Theory ، نظریه زمینه ای، تئوری بنیادی، داده بنیاد

نظریه بسترزاد، نظریه برخاسته از داده ها

 Is an inductive research technique developed for healthrelated

topics by Glaser & Strauss (1967)

– Grounded” – means the theory developed from the

research is grounded or has it roots in the data from

which is was derived .

– Goal is to develop a theory about the processes (social

behaviour) under investigation in a natural setting

– Useful in areas where little is known or when a new

perspective is needed.

Data analysis generates a visual picture, a narrative

statement or a series of hypotheses with a central

phenomenon, causal conditions, context and

consequences.

Selecting a method of data collection

 Differences in the methods of data collection in

quantitative and qualitative research:

– Most methods of data collection can be used in both

qualitative and quantitative research

– The classification of a method into the quantitative or

qualitative category depends upon your answers to the

following questions:

• What philosophical epistemology is underpinning your

approach to research enquiry?

• How was the information collected? Was it through a

structured or unstructured/flexible format of data collection?

Selecting a method of data collection

– Were the questions or issues discussed during data collection

predetermined or developed during data collection?

– How was the information you gathered recorded? Was it in a

descriptive, narrative, categorical, quantitative form or on a scale?

– How was the information analysed? Was it a descriptive,

categorical or numerical analysis?

– How do you propose to communicate the findings? Do you want to

write in a descriptive or analytical manner?

 For example, if an observation is recorded in a narrative or

descriptive format, it becomes qualitative information, but if it is

recorded in categorical form or on a scale, it will be classified as

quantitative information.

Selecting a method of data collection

Major approaches to information gathering

 When you undertake a research study, in most situations, you need to

collect the required information; however, sometimes the information

required is already available and need only be extracted.

1. primary data;

2. secondary data.

Selecting a method of data collection

Observation

There are two types of observation:

– 1. participant observation;

– 2. non-participant observation.

Observations can be made under two conditions:

1. natural;

2. controlled.

Selecting a method of data collection

 The questionnaire

– A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to

which are recorded by respondents.

A questionnaire can be administered in different ways:

The mailed questionnaire

Collective administration (such as students in a classroom)

Administration in a public place (such as shopping center, health

center)

Forms of question:

1. open-ended question

2. closed question

Selecting a method of data collection

 Pre-testing a research instrument

– You should test your research instrument before using

it for actual data collection. A pre-test should be carried

out under actual field conditions on a group of people

similar to your study population.

– The purpose is not to collect data but to identify

problems that the potential respondents might have in

either understanding or interpreting a question.

Selecting a method of data collection

Prerequisites for data collection

Before you start obtaining information from potential

respondents it is imperative that you make sure of their:

 motivation to share the required information

 clear understanding of the questions

 possession of the required information

Selecting a method of data collection

 Methods of data collection in qualitative research

1. unstructured interviews (such as in-depth

interviewing, focus group interviewing, narratives);

2. participant observation;

3. secondary sources (e.g., Government or semigovernment

publications, Earlier research, Personal

records such as diaries, Mass media such as

newspapers, magazines, the Internet).

Let’s write down in our plan our data

collection approach

1) Sites to be studied

2) People to be studied

3) Permissions needed

4) Types of data to be collected

5) Forms needed for data collection

Collecting data using attitudinal scales

Attitudinal scales in quantitative research

 In developing an attitudinal scale there are three problems:

1. Which aspects of a situation or issue should be included when seeking

to measure an attitude? For instance, what aspects of teaching should be

included in a scale to find out the attitude of students towards their

lecturer?

2. What procedure should be adopted for combining the different aspects

to obtain an overall picture?

3. How can one ensure that a scale really is measuring what it is supposed

to measure?

Collecting data using attitudinal scales

Attitudinal scales in quantitative research

There are three major types of attitudinal

scale:

1. the summated rating scale, also known as the Likert

scale;

2. the equal-appearing interval scale or differential scale,

also known as the Thurstone scale;

3. the cumulative scale, also known as the Guttman scale.

Collecting data using attitudinal scales

The summated rating or Likert scale

– The summated rating scale, more commonly known as the

Likert scale, is based upon the assumption that each

statement/item on the scale has equal attitudinal value,

‘importance’ or ‘weight’ in terms of reflecting an attitude towards

the issue in question (it is also the main limitation of this scale).

The attitudinal score only places respondents in a position relative to one

another. Remember that the Likert scale does not measure the attitude per se,

but helps you to rate a group of individuals in descending or ascending order

with respect to their attitudes towards the issues in question.

 The equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scale

مقیاس فاصله های یكسان نما (ترستون) 

 Unlike the Likert scale, the Thurstone scale calculates a

‘weight’ or ‘attitudinal value’ for each statement.

 The main advantage of this scale is that, as the importance

of each statement is determined by judges, it reflects the

absolute rather than relative attitudes of respondents.

 On the other hand, the scale is difficult to construct, and a major

criticism is that judges and respondents may assess the importance of a

particular statement differently and, therefore, the respondents’

attitudes might not be reflected.

Collecting data using attitudinal scales

Attitudes and qualitative research

 in qualitative research you can only explore the spread of

the attitudes. Whatever methods of data collection you use

– in-depth interviewing, focus group, observation – you

can explore the diversity in the attitudes but cannot find

other aspects like: how many people have a particular

attitude, the intensity of a particular attitude, or overall

what the attitude of a person is.

 Qualitative methods are therefore best suited to explore the

diversity in attitudes.

Establishing the Validity and Reliability of

a Research Instrument

The concept of validity

According to Kerlinger, ‘Are we measuring what we think we

are measuring?’ (1973: 457). …Reflects the real meaning

Types of Validity in quantitative research

1. Translation validity

A. Face validity

B. Content validity

2. Criterion validity

A. Concurrent validity

B. Predictive validity

3. Construct validity

A. Convergent validity

B. Discriminant validity

Face Validity

 Face validity: Each question or item on the research instrument

must have a logical link with an objective.

 Subjective expert judgment about what’s there”

 Compare each item to conceptual definition

– If not, it should be dropped

– Is the measure valid on its face”

Face Validity

 Face validity can be established by having pilot participants ask the

following questions as they overview the survey:

– Is the title of the survey aligned with the purpose of the study? For example, if you

are gathering high school science teachers’ perceptions about curriculum, does the

title of the survey reflect that?

– Are the directions clear, and do they accurately relate the intent for which the

participants should be answering the questions? For example, if the researcher

wants the participants to reflect back on an experience,” is this wordage

specifically stated in the directions?

– Does the overall language and reading level of the survey reflect the ability of the

group for which the survey will be given?

 For example, this self-esteem scale has face validity because the items

(I feel that I have a number of good qualities;” I am able to do things

as well as other people”) appear to assess what we intuitively mean

when we speak of self-esteem.

 Content validity: the items and questions cover the full range of the issue

or attitude being measured.

محتوای پرسشنامه در راستای هدف اصلی و سوال پژوهش است؟ 

 Subjective expert judgment of what’s not there”

– Start with conceptual definition and see if all dimensions and traits

are represented at the operational level

– Are some over or underrepresented?

 If current indicators are insufficient, develop more indicators

- cycle of face and content validity

Establishing the Validity and Reliability of

a Research Instrument

 Content validity is also judged on the basis of the extent to which

statements or questions represent the issue they are supposed to

measure.