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narshin



اسلاید 203
Study designs in qualitative research
ETHNOGRAPHY قوم نگاری
– Research tradition in anthropology
– Provides a framework for studying
meanings, patterns, and experiences
defined by a cultural group in a
holistic fashion.
– A description and interpretation of a cultural
or social group or system. The researcher
examines the group’s observable and learned
patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of
life.
اسلاید 204
Study designs in qualitative research
 ETHNOGRAPHY قوم نگاری
– Focus: the culture of a group of people و شناخت الگوهای رفتاری
– گروه خاصی از مردم كه دارای ارزشهای مشترك هستند مثلا معلمان یك موسسه
آموزشی، دانشجویان یك رشته
– Assumption: every human group evolves a culture that guides
members view of the world and the way they structure their
experiences.
– May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents.
– Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through
participant observation.
– Men's attitudes, beliefs and roles in pregnancy and childbirth: an
Ethnographic Study in Nepal
اسلاید 205
Study designs in qualitative research
Grounded Theory ، نظریه زمینه ای، تئوری بنیادی، داده بنیاد
نظریه بسترزاد، نظریه برخاسته از داده ها
 Is an inductive research technique developed for healthrelated
topics by Glaser & Strauss (1967)
– Grounded” – means the theory developed from the
research is grounded or has it roots in the data from
which is was derived .
– Goal is to develop a theory about the processes (social
behaviour) under investigation in a natural setting
– Useful in areas where little is known or when a new
perspective is needed.
اسلاید 211
Data analysis generates a visual picture, a narrative
statement or a series of hypotheses with a central
phenomenon, causal conditions, context and
consequences.
اسلاید213
Selecting a method of data collection
 Differences in the methods of data collection in
quantitative and qualitative research:
– Most methods of data collection can be used in both
qualitative and quantitative research
– The classification of a method into the quantitative or
qualitative category depends upon your answers to the
following questions:
• What philosophical epistemology is underpinning your
approach to research enquiry?
• How was the information collected? Was it through a
structured or unstructured/flexible format of data collection?
اسلاید 2014
Selecting a method of data collection
– Were the questions or issues discussed during data collection
predetermined or developed during data collection?
– How was the information you gathered recorded? Was it in a
descriptive, narrative, categorical, quantitative form or on a scale?
– How was the information analysed? Was it a descriptive,
categorical or numerical analysis?
– How do you propose to communicate the findings? Do you want to
write in a descriptive or analytical manner?
 For example, if an observation is recorded in a narrative or
descriptive format, it becomes qualitative information, but if it is
recorded in categorical form or on a scale, it will be classified as
quantitative information.
اسلاید 215
Selecting a method of data collection
Major approaches to information gathering
 When you undertake a research study, in most situations, you need to
collect the required information; however, sometimes the information
required is already available and need only be extracted.
1. primary data;
2. secondary data.
اسلاید 217
Selecting a method of data collection
Observation
There are two types of observation:
– 1. participant observation;
– 2. non-participant observation.
Observations can be made under two conditions:
1. natural;
2. controlled.
اسلاید 219
Selecting a method of data collection
 The questionnaire
– A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to
which are recorded by respondents.
A questionnaire can be administered in different ways:
The mailed questionnaire
Collective administration (such as students in a classroom)
Administration in a public place (such as shopping center, health
center)
Forms of question:
1. open-ended question
2. closed question
اسلاید 221
Selecting a method of data collection
 Pre-testing a research instrument
– You should test your research instrument before using
it for actual data collection. A pre-test should be carried
out under actual field conditions on a group of people
similar to your study population.
– The purpose is not to collect data but to identify
problems that the potential respondents might have in
either understanding or interpreting a question.
اسلاید 222
Selecting a method of data collection
Prerequisites for data collection
Before you start obtaining information from potential
respondents it is imperative that you make sure of their:
 motivation to share the required information
 clear understanding of the questions
 possession of the required information
اسلاید 223
Selecting a method of data collection
 Methods of data collection in qualitative research
1. unstructured interviews (such as in-depth
interviewing, focus group interviewing, narratives);
2. participant observation;
3. secondary sources (e.g., Government or semigovernment
publications, Earlier research, Personal
records such as diaries, Mass media such as
newspapers, magazines, the Internet).
اسلاید 226
Let’s write down in our plan our data
collection approach
1) Sites to be studied
2) People to be studied
3) Permissions needed
4) Types of data to be collected
5) Forms needed for data collection
اسلاید 229
Collecting data using attitudinal scales
Attitudinal scales in quantitative research
 In developing an attitudinal scale there are three problems:
1. Which aspects of a situation or issue should be included when seeking
to measure an attitude? For instance, what aspects of teaching should be
included in a scale to find out the attitude of students towards their
lecturer?
2. What procedure should be adopted for combining the different aspects
to obtain an overall picture?
3. How can one ensure that a scale really is measuring what it is supposed
to measure?
اسلاید 230
Collecting data using attitudinal scales
Attitudinal scales in quantitative research
There are three major types of attitudinal
scale:
1. the summated rating scale, also known as the Likert
scale;
2. the equal-appearing interval scale or differential scale,
also known as the Thurstone scale;
3. the cumulative scale, also known as the Guttman scale.
اسلاید 231
Collecting data using attitudinal scales
The summated rating or Likert scale
– The summated rating scale, more commonly known as the
Likert scale, is based upon the assumption that each
statement/item on the scale has equal attitudinal value,
‘importance’ or ‘weight’ in terms of reflecting an attitude towards
the issue in question (it is also the main limitation of this scale).
اسلاید 232
The attitudinal score only places respondents in a position relative to one
another. Remember that the Likert scale does not measure the attitude per se,
but helps you to rate a group of individuals in descending or ascending order
with respect to their attitudes towards the issues in question.
اسلاید 233
 The equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scale
مقیاس فاصله های یكسان نما (ترستون) 
 Unlike the Likert scale, the Thurstone scale calculates a
‘weight’ or ‘attitudinal value’ for each statement.
 The main advantage of this scale is that, as the importance
of each statement is determined by judges, it reflects the
absolute rather than relative attitudes of respondents.
 On the other hand, the scale is difficult to construct, and a major
criticism is that judges and respondents may assess the importance of a
particular statement differently and, therefore, the respondents’
attitudes might not be reflected.
اسلاید 241
Collecting data using attitudinal scales
Attitudes and qualitative research
 in qualitative research you can only explore the spread of
the attitudes. Whatever methods of data collection you use
– in-depth interviewing, focus group, observation – you
can explore the diversity in the attitudes but cannot find
other aspects like: how many people have a particular
attitude, the intensity of a particular attitude, or overall
what the attitude of a person is.
 Qualitative methods are therefore best suited to explore the
diversity in attitudes.
اسلاید 242
Establishing the Validity and Reliability of
a Research Instrument
The concept of validity
According to Kerlinger, ‘Are we measuring what we think we
are measuring?’ (1973: 457). …Reflects the real meaning
اسلاید 243
Types of Validity in quantitative research
1. Translation validity
A. Face validity
B. Content validity
2. Criterion validity
A. Concurrent validity
B. Predictive validity
3. Construct validity
A. Convergent validity
B. Discriminant validity
اسلاید 244
Face Validity
 Face validity: Each question or item on the research instrument
must have a logical link with an objective.
 Subjective expert judgment about what’s there”
 Compare each item to conceptual definition
– If not, it should be dropped
– Is the measure valid on its face”
اسلاید245
Face Validity
 Face validity can be established by having pilot participants ask the
following questions as they overview the survey:
– Is the title of the survey aligned with the purpose of the study? For example, if you
are gathering high school science teachers’ perceptions about curriculum, does the
title of the survey reflect that?
– Are the directions clear, and do they accurately relate the intent for which the
participants should be answering the questions? For example, if the researcher
wants the participants to reflect back on an experience,” is this wordage
specifically stated in the directions?
– Does the overall language and reading level of the survey reflect the ability of the
group for which the survey will be given?
 For example, this self-esteem scale has face validity because the items
(I feel that I have a number of good qualities;” I am able to do things
as well as other people”) appear to assess what we intuitively mean
when we speak of self-esteem.
اسلاید 247
 Content validity: the items and questions cover the full range of the issue
or attitude being measured.
محتوای پرسشنامه در راستای هدف اصلی و سوال پژوهش است؟ 
 Subjective expert judgment of what’s not there”
– Start with conceptual definition and see if all dimensions and traits
are represented at the operational level
– Are some over or underrepresented?
 If current indicators are insufficient, develop more indicators
- cycle of face and content validity
اسلاید 248
Establishing the Validity and Reliability of
a Research Instrument
 Content validity is also judged on the basis of the extent to which
statements or questions represent the issue they are supposed to
measure.


اسلاید8
Research is the systematic process of collecting and
analysing information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon with which we
are concerned or interested.
 Research involves three main stages:
planning
data collection
analysis.
اسلاید 9
Research: A way of thinking
Originates with a question or problem.
– It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a
systematic examination of the observed information to
find answers, with a view to instituting appropriate
changes for a more effective professional service.
Research is one of the ways to find answers
to your questions.
اسلاید10
The questions about any profession can be
considered from four different perspectives
اسلاید 11
The research process:
– Is being undertaken within a framework of a set
of philosophies;
– Uses procedures, methods and techniques that
have been tested for their validity and
reliability;
– Is designed to be unbiased and objective
اسلاید12
Controlled
Rigorous
Systematic
Valid and verifiable
Empirical (Conclusions must be based on hard evidence collected
from real-life experiences or observation)
Critical scrutiny (the process of investigation must be
foolproof and free from any drawbacks)
اسلاید22
– Identifying the problem
– Formulating a hypothesis
– Developing the research plan
– Collecting and analyzing the data
– Interpreting results and forming conclusions
اسلاید24
Research method & methodology
Research methods: All those
methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research.
Research methods or techniques, thus, refer
to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations.
اسلاید25
Research method & methodology
Research methodology is a way to
systematically solve the research problem.
It may be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically.
 Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only
talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use in the context of our research
study and explain why we are using a particular method or
technique and why we are not using others.
اسلاید26
Types of research
Research can be classified from three
perspectives:
1. Application of the research study
2. Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry mode employed
اسلاید35
Explanatory research -3 تحقیق تبیینی
- It attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
- How technology affects unemployment?
اسلاید 37
Although, theoretically, a research study can be
classified in one of the mentioned perspectives, in
practice most studies are a combination of the
three categories (descriptive, correlational and
explanatory research.
اسلاید39
In general, there are two approaches to find
answers to your research questions:
1- The structured approach (quantitative research):
everything (objectives, design, sample, …) is predetermined.
More appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue
or phenomenon.
(positivism) " "اثبات گر
2- The unstructured approach (qualitative research): it allows
flexibility in all aspects of the process. More appropriate to
explore its nature. ) " پسا اثبات گرا »post positivism
اسلاید40
The choice of a quantitative or qualitative mode of inquiry,
should depend upon:
1. Aim of your inquiry- exploration, confirmation or
quantification.
2. Use of the findings-policy formulation or process
understanding.
اسلاید 41
Different Ways of Looking at Things
Quantitative
– Positivistic
– Epistemological basis is Realism
– Dates to the Age of Enlightenment
Qualitative
– Naturalistic (Post-Positivistic)
– Epistemological basis is Idealism
– Dates informally to prehistoric times
Formally to ancient Greece
اسلاید 44
QUANTITATIVE
– Hypothesis: All beans
are alike.
– NULL: No beans are
different.
– Method: Count the
beans.
 QUALITATIVE
– Question: What is a
bean? What does it
mean to be a bean?
– Method: Examine
beanness” in the field.
اسلاید 45
QUANTITATIVE
– to explain and predict
– to test, confirm, and
validate theory
 QUALITATIVE
– to describe and explain
– to explore and interpret
– to build theory
اسلاید 46
QUANTITATIVE
– focused
– deals with known
variables
– uses established
guidelines
– static designs; contextfree;
objective
 QUALITATIVE
– holistic approach
– unknown variables
– flexible guidelines
– emergent” design;
context-bound;
– subjective
اسلاید 47
QUANTITATIVE
– deductive analysis
• from general case
(theory”) to specific
situations.
 QUALITATIVE
– inductive analysis
• from specific situation
to general case.
اسلاید 48
QUANTITATIVE
– Numerical data
– Statistics
– Formal and scientific
 QUALITATIVE
– Narrative description
– Words, quotes
– Personal voice; literary
اسلاید 49
Which approach to educational
research (or social sciences)
should you use?
اسلاید 50
There is an objective
reality that can be
measured?
– If so, use Quantitative
research.
 There are multiple,
constructed realities
that defy easy
measurement or
categorization?
– If so, use Qualitative
research?



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